Adobe d C >> Here, we couple individual fixed effects and instrumental variable approaches in trying to determine whether specific forms of leisure contribute to gains in test performance over time. Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. Tests that measure aptitude are only imperfect proxies of cognitive ability, and necessarily signal other noncognitive factors like motivation or goal orientation (Heckman and Kautz 2013). However, in high-performance sports, minimum performance differences can have a major impact on athletes success in competition. << Passive leisure activities become alternative leisure Recent research, however, suggests that vitamin D deficiency among blacks may be an artifact of conventional testing methods, and that levels of bioavailable 25-hydroxyvitamin D are similar to whites due to the presence of a related hormone marker that is not customarily measured (Powe et al. Recent research suggests that while there does appear to be a seasonal pattern to cognitive processing presumably based in circadian rhythms, these do not manifest in actual differences in measurable ability (Meyer et al. Active recreation Definition Active ageing and quality of life: factors associated with participation in leisure activities among institutionalized older adults, with and without dementia. The contribution of the smartphone use to reducing depressive symptoms of Chinese older adults: The mediating effect of social participation. Esteban-Cornejo, Irene, Carlos Tejero-Gonzalez, James F. Sallis, and Oscar L. Veiga. That is, RCT studies are by definition unable to reproduce the real-world conditions in which behaviors emerge and unfold, while their limited scale prevents inferences on how effects vary among subgroups. However, some drawbacks can include social isolation and self-deception as a result of errors made. 2015). Adobe d C 2015;19(11):1031-41. doi: 10.1080/13607863.2014.996734. For instance, physical trampling will damage vegetation and increase compaction of soils. WebRecent research including meta-analyses have clearly underlined the negative impact of seated occupational activities on overall mortality (11, 12). Leisure and religious activity participation and mental health: gender analysis of older adults in Nepal. Results: The results showed that participation in passive leisure activities, such reading, talking on the telephone and watching TV/listening to the radio, is more frequent among older adults (P = 0.000). 2013), criminal behavior (Jacob, Lefgren, and Moretti 2007), and civil conflict (Miguel, Satyanath, and Sergenti 2004), to name a few. The effects of sedentary behavior and screen time are particularly meaningful, given that by the 2007 wave, the adolescents in our data spent over 2.5 hours each day performing these passive leisure activities. WebPassive recreation shall not include activities that may result result in degradation of the trail system, including but not limited to motor vehicle use, removal of vegetation beyond that necessary for trail construction, disturbance of soil beyond that necessary for trail construction, and hunting. Passive leisure activities become alternative leisure activities for older adults as a result of limited physical capacity. Significant baseline differences among high- and low-SES toddlers have been found as early as 18 months (Fernald, Marchman, and Wiesleder 2013), and indeed may be large enough in magnitude to largely account for the lag in US educational assessment compared to similar industrialized countries (Merry 2013). Jacob, Brian, Lars Lefgren, and Enrico Moretti. In the realm of public health, small-scale RCT and other experimental studies could help uncover what mechanisms are at play in deconstructing causal pathways, while other research using observational data and quasi-experimental methodology can lend support to or undermine our findings. Mielke, Gregore I., Wendy J. Specific activities would then incorrectly be identified as aiding or impeding development when the causal directionality is actually reversed. Boys may thus reach a saturation point after which each additional unit of electronic media consumption no longer appreciably affects performance. Meyer, Christelle, Vincenzo Muto, Mathieu Jaspar, Caroline Kuss, Erik Lambot, Sarah L. Chellappa, Christian Degueldre, Evelyne Balteau, Andr Luxen, Benita Middleton, Simon N. Archer, Fabienne Collette, Derk-Jan Dijk, Pierre Maquet, and Gilles Vandewalle. Walking is one of the most common recreational activities on land; accordingly, this activity and the effects of trampling are well studied. Among the stratified results, the clearest differences are among the college- and non-college-educated caregiver subsamples (table 2). Estimates based on a convergence in active and sedentary time use as the school year progresses and the weather gets sunnier would be biased if the real driver of improving test scores is simply having had a longer time in school since the prior summer within each wave. Baseline differences in test performance (i.e., before entering kindergarten) between white and black children, to take one example, are often found to be as large as a full standard deviation (Bond and Lang 2013). We then present stratified results, with the clearest differences based on caregivers education (in our data, almost always mothers)with strong effects of active and passive leisure on cognition evident among the children of high school graduates, and smaller, statistically insignificant relationships among those with college-educated parents. "/S+k{zkzq=+W5= `a3.gS'`OW5= `a3.gS'`OW5= `a3.gS'`OV7]{%_9KS?qN4L}KOP[u3#A7]{%_9KS?qN4L$uE[~k#*F0=7D]DV5i G+WOm7fU-I{|6~K~ lN`=P?%Su [ wUfKkhwn0q( ,k}d9Qev[ z+Yh-DDE+W^HwITkrevv:. Frederick, Carl B., Kaisa Snellman, and Robert D. Putnam. We find that physically active and outdoor leisure activity (for American children, largely synonymous) positively contribute to growth in math skills, while sedentary activity and screen time in its various manifestations exhibit the opposite effect. 2022 Jun 15;10(1):151. doi: 10.1186/s40359-022-00861-1. That is, parents may deliberately modify their childs behavior because they are not performing as well in school in a way that is reflected in cognitive tests. WebOutdoor recreational activities are often thought to be an environmentally benign activity, however more often than not, it has been reported that outdoor recreation can have negative consequences for wildlife. /Filter /DCTDecode Specifications that were not bounded by lag time restrictions produced substantively similar results, but with smaller coefficients and greater precision, consistent with the growth in sample size and reduced signal after including cases where testing substantially lags or precedes treatment. To better address issues of endogeneity, we use a combined fixed-effects instrumental variable (FE-IV) approach, where we exploit the variation in weather to estimate the effect of time use on cognition across waves. The prospect of a seasonally based confounder is more problematic considering the realities of the data. Bhattacharya, Debopam, and Bhashkar Mazumder. 83 Bookshelf 9 0 obj Sample sizes decline slightly in our FE-IV specifications because of a small number of observations with missing geocodes. 2022 Aug 12;10:966989. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.966989. Given the trivial negative effects In terms of the trends in behavioral and assessment gaps among adolescents from 2007 to 2014, some results are modestly encouraging (see online appendix table S1). The result also showed that active leisure activities, such as club/organization or volunteering, home making/maintenance and traveling, were significant predictors of life satisfaction for older adults controlling for covariates. The Author(s) 2018. H+T5237U0 B]cC=S## %*g* e Reardon, Sean F., and Ximena A. Portilla. Influence of Leisure Competence and Level of Leisure Activity on Life Satisfaction in Low-Income Older Adults in Rural South Korea. Several longitudinal studies have found early exposure to media and television in both infants and toddlers to predict worse cognitive outcomes later (Tomopoulos et al. Lundborg, Petter, Paul Nystedt, and Dan-Olof Rooth. Positive and Negative Effects of Exercise | livestrong We also find substantial effect sizes for television and gaming, with each additional hour resulting in a loss of 38 and 63 percent of a standard deviation, respectively. Quasi-experimental studies on the cognitive effects of computer use have found that effects are largely null (Fairlie and Robinson 2013), or negative but modest in magnitude (Vigdor, Ladd, and Martinez 2014). National Library of Medicine Aging Ment Health. Tomopoulos, Suzy, Bernard P. Dreyer, Samantha Berkule, Arthur H. Fierman, Carolyn Brockmeyer, and Alan L. Mendelsohn. 11 Increasing motivation through regular reinforcing experiences may be the first step toward achievement of Still, because screen time and sedentary behavior are so intertwined in the American context, much of this work focuses on physical outcomes like body mass index, and extant findings on cognition are rather limited and equivocal. Passive F ) sx3s\y; A total of 460 participants aged 60-95 years were randomly selected from 21 sites in the USA. Therefore, our previous understanding of harmful StS effects on subsequent strength and power activities has to be updated. Here, we use multiple imputation (MI) to handle missing cases, which involves an iterative process where observed data are used to predict missing values multiple times, resulting in a pre-specified number of imputed datasets that are then combined to obtain optimal parameter estimates (McKnight et al. For instance, we might expect less sunlight during a storm spell to result in more sedentary time at home, and less time engaging in physical activity outdoors. government site. ;woW5un57t\wzj#1'Rke7loqS;mam*I_]z+=[n&]?HS;mam+/vlwOs>Q>K/vlwOs>Q>K/vlwOs>Q>K+RI$I$_ Tom Laidley is a PhD candidate in sociology at New York University. As the catchment and reservoir are the first and foremost barriers to protect drinking water quality, these ecological impacts may have a considerable influence on water quality. The .gov means its official. % 7 0 obj Yet these cognitive improvements may be attributable merely to the timing of the test further along in the school year in the second wave, and the substantial accumulation of knowledge children exhibit by virtue of the additive gains they experience as the school year progresses (Fitzpatrick, Grissmer, and Hastedt 2011). WebA growing body of research evidence indicates that pre-event static stretching of the prime movers may actually have a negative effect on force production, power performance, strength endurance, reaction time, and running speed (4, 10, 11, 19, 34, 40, 41). With respect to video games, Suziedelyte (2015) uses a fixed-effects research design and finds that gaming (both console and computer based) is positively associated with math ability. WebOther studies have also indicated that participating in moderate-in-tensity leisure activities (e.g., walking) can effectively reduce psychological anxiety and improve mood (Fox, 1999; Roe & Aspinall, 2011; Scully, Kremer, Meade, Graham, & Dudgeon, 1998). (2005) found that time outdoors moderates the relationship between weather and affective and cognitive outcomes, which suggests that behavior (i.e., going outside, rather than general abstract satisfaction with positive weather conditions) is the linchpin in the causal process. 2016). active leisure activities; life satisfaction; older adults; passive leisure activities. Just as sunnier weather may allow us more time outside and the opportunity to be physically active, it varies systematically with the school year, produces a critically important secosteroid in humans, and so on. For instance, black-white and college-no college gaps in math performance and sedentary behavior shrank from 2007 to 2014. There are also other more clinically significant sun-related factors that work in the opposite direction, and would bias our estimates downward. 2015). Miguel, Edward, Shanker Satyanath, and Ernest Sergenti. We also see variation in effect sizes stratified by sex and race. Outdoor recreational activities are increasing worldwide and occur at high frequency especially close to cities. /Length 7 0 R endobj For instance, some have provocatively argued that the primary driver of labor market success and attendant social reproduction is not cognition or skills per se but the attitudes and personality traits that are inculcated in the higher social strata (Bowles and Gintis 2002). There is also the possibility that our results are driven by differences in the bioavailability of vitamin D, which aside from specific foods like fortified milk is largely endogenously produced via sunlight. We actually see a small reduction in total screen time, most likely because we code these behaviors as primary rather than secondary activities. How Many Imputations Are Really Needed? We found parental education to be so stable across waves as to function as time invariant, and thus dropped it from the specifications. Researchers have also illustrated related links between seasonal warm-weather allergens and decreased performance on high-stakes exams (Bensnes 2016). First, fewer children were eligible to take the reading tests because of different age restrictions. That is, because we deliberately exclude many kinds of behavior that could fall under the outside/active (e.g., walking to or from school) or sedentary (e.g., doing homework on the couch) categories, reductions in one do not necessarily lead to increases in the other. RECREATION, PASSIVE: Recreation that involves existing natural resources and has a minimal impact. RECREATION, PASSIVE means low intensity recreation activities which have limited noise and light impacts and are minimally disruptive to the natural environment. For the purposes of this title, << For instance, we may find that children who have their time use and cognitive performance measured in December in the first wave and June in the second exhibit an increase in active behavior and a co-occurring growth in cognitive performance. /Length 9 0 R His other interests include housing affordability and the growth and development of cities and the regions they anchor. Our research suffers from various limitations that render our results provisional. We also perform a robustness check whereby we restrict our sample to sunlight outliers in an attempt to capture the influence of more random as opposed to seasonally based weather, finding substantively similar resultswith the exception of gaming, which is no longer significantly predictive (see table S3 in the online appendix). Khn, Simone, Tobias Gleich, Robert C. Lorenz, U. Lindenberger, and Jurgen Gallinat. * p < .05 ** p < .01 *** p < .001 (two-tailed tests). A major strength of the CDS is the detailed measurement of daily behavior offered by the time diary module. /Subtype /Image Do Summer Time-Use Gaps Vary by Socioeconomic Status? Such green spaces can lower temperatures by providing shade and water bodies equipped with drinking fountains and opportunities for passive recreational activities. Benefits such as: improving of cardiovascular health helping a person manage his or her weight lowering calories and cholesterol reducing blood pressure strengthening bond or relationship with other people Conceptually, we do not necessarily see this as a violation of the exclusion restriction because in order to get the benefits of sunlight on cognitive performance via the vitamin D pathway, children do still need to go outside and expose their skin to the sun, as even conventional window glass blocks most ultraviolet rays. WebRecreation as an essential landuse Due to competing demands for land, there is extreme Pressure for land. For instance, there could in theory be some character trait that prompts a simultaneous migration to the Sunbelt and an outsized growth in cognition, which would bias our estimates upward. Keywords: In the social sciences, work tends to focus on time use as outcome, tacitly positioning specific behaviors as meaningfully contributing to the mechanics of social reproduction and individual life chances (Gershenson 2013; Kalil et al. eCollection 2022. 2014). More recently, the theory of concerted cultivation has been developed as an extension of this work to describe how the child-rearing practices of parents and time uses of children systematically differ by race and social class. 8600 Rockville Pike >> Data missingness is not a trivial concern using PSID-CDS data; in the inaugural 1997 wave, about 20 percent of families otherwise eligible and contributing to the study did not complete time diaries. Before stream *:JZjz ? endobj Using the weather as an instrument, as we have described, also has its pitfalls and potential biases. Next, the negative effects of casual, serious, and project-based leisure are taken up. Meanwhile, some leisure is intolerably deviant, whereas other activities are new to society and are therefore in the course of being examined by the general public for their moral implications. Another quality that characterizes some leisure is its annoyingness. Falbe, Jennifer, Bernard Rosner, Walter C. Willett, Kendrin R. Sonneville, Frank B. Hu, and Alison E. Field. Stock, James H., Jonathan H. Wright, and Motohiro Yogo. Association between Depression Severity and Physical Function among Chinese Nursing Home Residents: The Mediating Role of Different Types of Leisure Activities. Others have also leveraged the random occurrence of weather shocks to explore electoral outcomes (Madestam et al. endobj Powe, Camille E., Michele K. Evans, Julia Wenger, Alan B. Zonderman, Anders H. Berg, Michael Nalls, Hector Tamez, Dongsheng Zhang, Ishir Bhan, Ananth Karumanchi, Neil R. Powe, and Ravi Thadhani. stream Physical activity lowers blood pressure , which is one of the major contributing factors to cardiovascular events. In the FE methodological framework, each respondent effectively acts as their own control by only considering within-child variation in behaviors, covariates, and test scores over time, and as a matter of course accounts for stable characteristics like race, birthweight, or sex. For each of our time use variables, coefficients are about five to six times as large for the children of non-college-educated mothers compared to their peers, and the null results for the latter are likely at least partly due to more modest first-stage associations, which are near or under commonly proposed weak-instrument thresholds. While we seek to determine the effects of qualitatively orthogonal behaviorsthat is, active versus sedentarywe do not code these in such broad ways as to render them in zero-sum opposition. We also thank the editors of Social Forces and the two anonymous reviewers for their helpful guidance and critiques. If higher-SES children are watching National Geographic and their peers are watching daytime talk shows, one might expect a qualitatively different effect. Prakash, Ruchika Shaurya, Michelle W. Voss, Kirk I. Erickson, and Arthur F. Kramer. McGarel, C., J. J. Weininger, Elliott B., Annette Lareau, and Dalton Conley. These differences in measured cognition reverberate through the life course, and have been implicated in reduced intergenerational mobility and flatter wage trajectories among African Americans, controlling for other significant factors in achievement like grades and attitudinal traits (Bhattacharya and Mazumder 2011; Hall and Farkas 2011). Recent reviews have illustrated that low-SES children are significantly more likely to engage in sedentary behavior than their peers in the United States and other high-income countries (Leech, McNaughton, and Timperio 2014; Mielke et al. However, little research has addressed heat-coping behaviours of elderly residents and whether green spaces play a role for this risk group during heat periods. All remaining errors are ours alone. We conclude with a descriptive examination of the trend lines between our data and the new 2014 CDS cohort, providing relevant contemporary context for our findings. Effects of Active and Passive Leisure on Cognition in Children Another possibility is that the effects we find in FE-IV specifications reflect relationships among compliers in our natural experiment that are not common across the CDS sample (more on this later in the results). Outdoor recreation in protected areas negatively impacts wildlife Health benefits of serious involvement in leisure activities among older Korean adults. ! For whites, the effect of physical and outdoor activity was greater in magnitude than for African Americans, with the opposite true of sedentary behavior and screen timethough the latter two are only significantly predictive at the 10 percent level for the black subsample (table 4). One possibility in explaining the differences in effect sizes (or whether behaviors are significantly predictive) stratified by race or sex is the presence of a threshold effect, whereby the marginal consumption of a specific behavior becomes either more or less impactful past a certain point. Psychometric properties of Leisure Satisfaction Scale (LSS)-short form: a Rasch rating model calibration approach. Our conventional FE estimates, however, render null effects across the board (though removing the education controllength of school day plus homeworkproduces significant results for sedentary behavior and screen time in the expected direction [estimates not shown]). While institutional and geographic factors are doubtlessly crucial to the formation of intellectual capital, these findings suggest that variations in home activity (i.e., outside formal school or childcare settings) may have cumulative effects on development that rival or even exceed those of school or neighborhood quality (Potter and Roksa 2013). The signal between behavior and cognitive achievement would be weakened in these subgroups, and thus perhaps not broadly relevant in terms of policy because changing behaviors would only affect children whose behavior is sensitive to environmental conditions. FOIA (2009) find that among adults over 45, sunlight is positively associated with cognitive assessment, but only among individuals suffering from depression. Additionally, we include a suite of household shocks which are linked in the literature to either childhood development or other fundamentals like family SES status, including indicators of an additional birth (Sandberg and Rafail 2014), the departure of a parent from the household (Tach 2015), and whether the family changed residence from a prior wave (Jelleyman and Spencer 2008). Not exercising. Meta-analyses of research on the effects of acute exercise intervention suggest a positive effect on executive functioning (i.e., skills that allow for planning, multitasking, self-control, etc. Thus for certain subpopulations, narrowing time use differences among children may aid in helping shrink gaps in assessment and academic achievement more generally. A sedentary or inactive lifestyle. Construction of ancillary facilities, such as boardwalks and viewing platforms, can also cause Brown, Bruno P. Nunes, Inacio C M Silva, and Pedro C. Hillal. eCollection 2014. These data are not available from the authors. and preferences for urban green spaces /Width 29 Extrapolating from effect sizes and average time use/math scores across waves, back-of-the-envelope calculations suggest that differences in behavior may account for nontrivial proportions of the black/white and caregiver college/no college gaps in assessment. /Length 11 0 R Moreover, even if behaviors are affecting cognitive performance through a more nebulous channel than raw intellectual ability (i.e., through more robust executive function and impulse control), ultimately they still produce measurable effects on assessment and can be considered net positive or negative. k#/m,]K9>Bk#.ku}uVj6^C |5>_:+5q/` Kq! p>KGFk}g $o^:G\f^;.^' {N?Fu6e:}o^:G\f^;.^' {N?]tr"{/+RI%Ve?/^u5`!,Ve?/^u5`!,Ve?/^u5`!,^W? The social and economic background of families influences not only the level of formalization but often whether activities are active or passive, and our findings are provisional evidence that these behaviors are significant in terms of not only weight gain or physical health but cognitive performance as well, implicating them in broader trends in childhood inequality in achievement. Our core data come from the original CDS module of the PSID (Panel Study of Income Dynamics 2017). 2009). Outdoor recreation in protected areas negatively impacts wildlife This leaves open the possibility that a different estimation strategy may uncover significant relationships between time use and cognition among the children of college-educated parents that we do not observe here. Recent reviews have argued that the consumption of folate in particular and other essential B vitamins in general are important to cognitive performance and brain health at every stage of the life cycle, in addition to during pregnancy (McGarel et al. Epub 2015 Jan 13. /ColorSpace /DeviceRGB He is also interested in mapping the genetic architecture of phenotypic plasticity, and characterizing social and genetic sorting as distinct processes. We thank Sandra Hofferth, Annette Lareau, Elliott B. Weininger, the members of the Connected Learning Research Network, and participants from the Child/Youth/Adolescents 2017 Health, Bodies, and Wellbeing ASA paper session for their critiques on earlier drafts of this manuscript. Effect sizes are at least twice as large for girls compared to boys, with all activities exhibiting significant relationships with math assessment except for video games (table 3). According to some studies, the We also include a five-year rolling average of real family income preceding the measurement year, and the poverty rate of the home census tract as a proxy for neighborhood conditions. Finally, we control for educational time, consisting of the total time in school and doing homework summed together. /Name /im2 Front Public Health. WebRecreation, passive means low intensity recreation activities which have limited noise and light impacts and are minimally disruptive to the natural environment. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. Being a couch potato. With respect to screen-time behaviors, we also cannot account for the content of what children were watching or what games they were playing, which could also influence our results. Yet other research which specifically examines the impact of educational programming (e.g., Sesame Street) finds positive and significant effects, signaling the importance of content (Mares and Pan 2013). /Width 29 Scientists from the Southeast Fisheries Science Center have deployed passive acoustic recorders to monitor endangered North Atlantic right whales in the Southeast for the 2023 calving season. 13 0 obj 2016). Here, we exploit the robust association between weather patterns and a select subset of leisure activities in attempting to draw a clearer connection between behavior and cognition, a crucially important factor in child development and achievement. Chay, Kenneth Y., Jonathan Guryan, and Bhashkar Mazumder. 2017 Mar 1;10(2):67-75. doi: 10.3928/19404921-20170224-01. Future work in the social sciences could integrate these differences in active and passive leisure into theoretical models that seek to explain why life chances so noticeably diverge among children. The differences in the effects of physical and outdoor activity are more difficult to speculate on because all children exhibit relatively low levels of either behavior. 2013; Nikkelen et al. Our results also have implications for achievement gaps documented in the social science literature. Other researchers have similarly argued for the primacy of noncognitive skills in fostering long-run outcomes in educational attainment (Heckman and Kautz 2013). By exploiting the plausibly exogenous variation in weather on the day of measured activity, we can deliver estimates of how more active and passive forms of leisurewhich are particularly sensitive to weather and sunlightcontribute to shaping cognitive assessment over time. 4.3 Passive Recreation - University of Michigan School for One reason could be a systematic difference in opportunity cost structures, such that some children are substituting active behavior for less productive time use. This work was supported by the MacArthur Foundation Connected Learning Research Network. Taken together, these findings suggest that the impact of the weather on mood is rather ambiguous, and that sunlight seems to affect outcomes chiefly through the act of being in- or outdoorsthat is, through activity and behavior. Though vitamin D is integral to skeletal health, it does play a role in neurological development and its deficiency tends to be associated with neuropsychiatric disorders (Eyles et al.